Particles

• topic/contrast marker
• mark information which the speaker assumes to be part of the hearer's register.
• Nouns whose referents can be uniquely identified(sun,sky)
• Common nouns whose referents have already introduced into the discourse.
• Generic names(man,car)
• Proper nouns(Italy or Mr. Fausto)
• は Never marks WH-words such as なに(何) or だれ(誰)
• Shows something of conversational value

Intonation Note: There is normally a small pause that accompanies は when showing a topic.

• が marks the subject when it is newly introduced in a discourse.(Give new information)
• は replaces が when the subject is a topic or a contrasted element.
• WH-words are always marked by が when they are the subject of a sentence.
• The subject in subordinate clauses is marked by が unless it is a contrasted element.
• ?When predicates are transitive adjectives or stative transitive verbs, the elements which correspond to the direct object in English are marked by が.
• Focus(draws attention to a statement)